Types of words in Chinese & word formation

[Don_Horhe]

While many of the forum members might be well-acquainted with the material below, a far greater number have little to no knowledge of word formation patterns and the types of words in Chinese. This is for them. Have in mind that this is a translation of my lecture notes from last year, and errors in terminology, translation and typos are bound to show up, so any advice and corrections are welcome. If needed, I can add pinyin for the terminology in Chinese, I'm just too lazy to do it today.

Words are made up of morphemes (语素). Those morphemes which carry the basic meaning of the word are called "roots", and those which are added to the root and carry an additional meaning are called "affixes". For example, in the word 桌子 "桌" is the root and "子" is the affix. Words made up of a single morpheme are called "single-morpheme (simple) words" (单纯词). Words made up of two or more morphemes are called "compound words" (合成词).

I Single-morpheme words 单纯词 Words made up of a single morpheme. Morphemes in turn can be monosyllabic and polysyllabic.

1) Monosyllabic 单音节的: 有，听，红，书 etc.

2) Polysyllabic 多音节的 Words made up of a single, polysyllabic morpheme. They fall into three categories:

а) Binomes 联绵词 They are made up of two syllables which simultaneously convey the meaning of the word and cannot be split apart (the root itself is disyllabic). There are three types of binomes:

- Alliterative binome 双声的 The two syllables have identical initials. For example:

伶俐 (línglì) = clever, bright

仿佛 (fǎngfú) = as if, seemingly

忐忑 (tǎntè) = mentally disturbed

犹豫 (yóuyù) = to hesitate; hesitant

郑重 (zhèngzhòng) = solemn, serious

崎岖 (qíqū) = rugged, uneven, rough

蜘蛛 (zhīzhū) = spider

尴尬 (gāngà) = awkward, embarrassed (comes from the 吴 (Wú) dialect)

- Rhyming binome 叠韵的 The two syllables have identical finals. For example

从容 (cóngróng) = calm, leisurely, unhurried

灿烂 (cànlàn) = brilliant, magnificent, glorious

苍茫 (cāngmáng) = vast, boundless

徘徊 (páihuái) = to pace back and forth

蟑螂 (zhāngláng) = cockroach

哆嗦 (dūosuo) = to shiver, to tremble (because of cold, rage, uneasiness)

窈窕 (yǎotiǎo) = (of a woman) gentle and graceful

- Others, neither alliterative nor rhyming binomes 其他的:

芙蓉 (fúróng) = lotus (another name for 荷花)

蛤蚧 (géjiè) = a type of gecko

蝴蝶 (húdié) = butterfly

蝙蝠 (biānfú) = bat (the animal)

B) Transliterated loanwords 音译的外来词

- Loans from the ancient western lands:

葡萄 (pútao) = grapes

琵琶 (pípa) = pi-pa (Chinese lute), a four-stringed musical instrument

菠萝 (bōluó) = pineapple

石榴 (shíliu) = pomegranate

- Loans from Indian Buddhism (they were not accepted until 6-7 century)

菩萨 (púsà) = Bodhisattva

罗汉 (luóhàn) = Arhat

和尚 (héshang) = Buddhist monk

佛 (Fó) = Buddha (short form of 佛陀 (Fótuó))

塔 (tǎ) = pagoda

- Loans from Mongolian

胡同 (hútòng) = hutong – a narrow street or alley, mostly found in Beijing

蘑菇 (mógu) = mushroom

- Loans from English

沙发 (shāfā) = sofa

咖啡 (kāfēi) = coffee

尼龙 (nílóng) = nylon

拷贝 (kǎobèi) = copy (noun)

啤儿 (pí’ér) = beer; it was later changed into啤酒 (píjiǔ)

卡路里 (kǎlùlǐ) = calorie

苏打 (sūdǎ) = soda

巧克力 (qiǎokèlì) = chocolate

按乃近 (ānnǎijìn) = Analgin (metamizole sodium)

吉他 (jítā) = guitar

麦克风 (màikèfēng) = microphone

荷尔蒙 (hé’ěrméng) = hormone

克拉 (kèlā) = carat

夹克 (jiākè) = jacket

三明治 (sānmíngzhì) = sandwich

汉堡包 (hànbǎobāo) = hamburger

可口可乐 (kěkǒukělè) = Coca-Cola; initially, the name was 苦口苦辣 (kǔkǒukǔlà) – that way people wouldn’t buy it

- Loans from Russian

苏维埃 (Sūwéi’āi) = Soviet

布尔什维克 (bù’ěrshíwéikè) = Bolshevik

伏特加 (fútèjiā) = vodka

- Loans from French

沙龙 (shālóng) = salon

蒙太奇 (méngtàiqí) = montage

c) Double-barreled words 叠音的 – They are formed by repeating a syllable twice. Usually, the second syllable is pronounced in the neutral tone.

猩猩 (xīngxing) = orangutan

大猩猩 (dàxīngxing) = gorilla

黑猩猩 (hēixīngxing) = chimpanzee

姥姥 (lǎolao) = dialect term for maternal grandmother

悄悄 (qiāoqiāo) = quietly, stealthily

狒狒 (fèifèi) = baboon

饽饽 (bōbo) = a type of 馒头, dialect term

II Compound words 合成词 Words made up of two or more morphemes (there is a difference between a disyllabic single-morpheme word and a polymorphemic word). According to the method of formation, they can be divided into two types:

1) Compound words made up of two roots 复合式 (词根+词根). According to the different types of relations, they are also divided into three sub-types:

а) Coordinative type 联合型/式. Compound words, made up of two roots with identical, similar or opposite meanings. They are also divided into three types:

- Type 1. Roots with similar (相近) or identical (相同) meaning:

* Noun root + noun root (名素+名素): 人民, 道路, 语言, 图画

* Verb root + verb root (动素+动素): 斗争, 停止, 制造

* Adjective root + adjective root (形素+形素): 容易, 奇怪

- Type 2. Roots with opposite (相反) meaning.

* Noun root + noun root (名素+名素): 东西, 窗户, 兄弟

* Verb root + verb root (动素+动素): 买卖, 忘记, 开关

* Adjective root + adjective root (形素+形素): 大小, 远近, 反正, 好歹

- Type 3. Two verb roots expressing successive actions:

听写, 叫卖, 走访, 往返, 剪贴, 编译, 纺织

B) Attributive type (modifier and word it modifies) 偏正型/式 The first root modifies (修饰) or limits (限制) the second. The main meaning is conveyed by the second root.

- Noun root + noun root (名素+名素)

* The first root indicates the material, from which the item is made, the items function or its type:

鸡蛋 (jīdàn) = chicken egg

牛奶 (niúnǎi) = cow milk

羊毛 (yángmáo) = sheep wool

脚印 (jiǎoyìn) = (foot imprint) footprint

布鞋 (bùxié) = cloth shoes

粉笔 (fěnbǐ) = chalk (literally – writing tool made of powder)

书架 (shūjià) = bookshelf

衣柜 (yīguì) = wardrobe (literally – cabinet for clothes)

脸盆 (liǎnpén) = washbasin (literally – face basin)

* The first root indicates the origin of the second.

河马 (hémǎ) = hippopotamus (literally – river horse)

山羊 (shānyáng) = goat (literally - mountain sheep)

海参 (hǎishēn) = sea cucumber (literally – sea root)

汾酒 (fénjiǔ) = a type of baijiu, made in the region of the river Fen in Shanxi

* The measure word is placed after the noun, forming a plural form.

书本 (shūběn) = books

纸张 (zhǐzhāng) = sheets of paper

人口 (rénkǒu) = population

船只 (chuánzhī) = boats

花束 (huāshù) = bouquet

According to some linguists, the latter belongs to the modifier-modified type, while according to others, it belongs to the complementing type.

- Adjective root + noun root (形素+名素)

温泉 (wēnquán) = hot spring

红旗 (hóngqí) = red flag (as a communist symbol)

大娘 (dàniáng) = aunt (wife of father’s elder brother); aunt (respectful form of address used for an elderly woman)

大哥 (dàgē) = eldest brother; elder brother (polite form of address for a man about one’s own age)

- Adjective root + verb root (形素+动素)

单干 (dāngàn) = work on one’s own

迟到 (chídào) = be late (literally – arrive late)

热爱 (rè’ài) = love deeply

静坐 (jìngzuò) = sit quietly

- Verb root + noun root (动素+名素)

抹布 (mābù) = rug, duster (literally – cloth for wiping)

睡衣 (shuìyī) = pajamas (literally – clothes for sleeping)

拖鞋 (tuōxié) = sandals, slippers (literally – dragged shoes)

闹钟 (nàozhōng) = alarm clock (literally – clock that makes noise)

- Noun root + adjective root (名素+形素)

冰凉 (bīngliáng) = ice-cold

火热 (huǒrè) = burning hot (literally – fiery-hot)

枯黄 (kūhuáng) = withered and yellow (literally – dry yellow)

草绿 (cǎolǜ) = grass green

海蓝 (hǎilán) = sea blue

天蓝 (tiānlán) = sky blue, azure

c) Complementing type 补充型/式 The second root complements the first, and the main meaning is conveyed by the second root.

- Verb root + verb root (动素+动素)

打倒 (dǎdǎo) = knock down (literally - hit to such an extent that it falls)

推动 (tuīdòng) = push, shove; promote

割断 (gēduàn) = cut off, sever

听懂 (tīngdǒng) = understand by listening

看懂 (kàndǒng) = understand by reading/watching

In some words of this type 得 or 不 can be inserted to form a complement of possibility::

看得见 (kàdejiàn) = (I) can see (it); 看不见 (kàbujiàn) = (I) cannot see (it)

做得完 (zuòdewán) = (I) can finish (it); 做不完 (zuòbuwán) = (I) cannot finish (it)

- Verb root + adjective root (动素+形素)

扩大 (kuòdà) = enlarge, expand

说明 (shuōmíng) = explain

提高 (tígāo) = raise

降低 (jiàngdī) = reduce, lower

减少 (jiǎnshǎo) = decrease

- Noun root + noun root (名素+名素)*

书本 (shūběn) = books

纸张 (zhǐzhāng) = sheets of paper

人口 (rénkǒu) = population

船只 (chuánzhī) = boats

花束 (huāshù) = bouquet

*See Attributive type; according to one of my teachers, the more prevailing opinion is that these words belong to the complementing type.

d) Predicate-object type 述宾型/式 The first root indicates an action or behavior and the second root indicates the action’s “receiver”.

- Verb root + noun root (动素+名素)

出版 (chūbǎn) = publish (literally – go out of the printing plate)

放心 (fàngxīn) = set one’s mind at rest

出名 (chūmíng) = become famous

到底 (dàodǐ) = at last, after all, finally; to the end

差点儿 (chàdiǎnr) = almost, nearly

满意 (mǎnyì) = satisfied, pleased

知心 (zhīxīn) = intimate, close (as in close, intimate friend)

注意 (zhùyì) = to be careful, to pay attention

进步 (jìnbù) = to advance, to progress

热心 (rèxīn) = enthusiastic

司机 (sījī) = driver

e) Subject-predicate type 主谓型The first root is being described, while the second root describes its state, condition or action.

- Noun root + verb root (名素+动素)

民主 (mínzhǔ) = democracy (literally - people are in charge)

地震 (dìzhèn) = earthquake (literally – earth shakes)

心得 (xīndé) = what one has learned from work, experience etc.

笔误 (bǐwù) = a slip of the pen; an printing mistake

心疼 (xīnténg) = love dearly; feel sorry for something

心软 (xīnruǎn) = softhearted

自卫 (zìwèi) = self-defense

人造 (rénzào) = man-made, artificial

电动 (diàndòng) = electric, power-driven

- Noun root + adjective root (名素+形素)

年轻 (niánqīng) = young

性急 (xìngjí) = impatient; short-tempered

眼热 (yǎnrè) = to envy, to covet

面熟 (miànshú) = familiar, to look familiar

2) Method of affixation 附加式 Formation of compound words by adding a suffix to the root.

a) Prefixes 前缀(or 词头) + 词根

-第(dì) – used before integers to indicate order: 五(five) -> 第五(fifth)

-老(lǎo) – used to show endearment, intimacy or respect: 老虎，老外，老大，老师

-初(chū) – original, first, primary: 初一(the first)，初五(the first five)，初级(beginners' level)，初雪(first snow of a given year)，初恋(first love)，初春(early spring)

-阿(ā) – used in front of kinship terms, terms of endearment or nicknames (it’s more dialectical): 阿哥(elder brother)，阿爸(dad)，阿妈(mum)，阿宝(precious/dear/honey)

B) Suffixes 词根+后缀(or 词尾) All of the suffixes below have a noun-forming function:

-子 (zi): 刀子，瓶子，胖子，瘦子

-头 (tou): 石头，年头，念头，吃头

-儿 (-r): 鸟儿，花儿， 歌儿，尖儿，老头儿

In Chinese there is also another type of bound morphemes in which the level of desemantization is not as high as that of the normal affixes. They are called “quasi-affixes” (类词缀) and are divided into two types:

c) Quasi-prefixes 类前缀

-非 (fēi = un-, anti-, im-, in- etc.): 非法 (illegal), 非正式 (informal), 非军事 (civil, non-military)

-可 (kě = deserving..., causing..., -able): 可怕 (frightening, scary), 可爱 (cute, lovable), 可笑 (funny, laughable), 可喜 (gratifying, likable), 可惜 (regrettable)

-反(fǎn = anti-): 反帝 (anti-imperial), 反革命 (counterrevolutionary), 反迷信 (anti-superstitious), 反封建 (anti-feudal)

d) Quasi-suffixes 类后缀

- 者 (zhě): 作者 (writer, author), 读者 (reader), 学者 (scholar), 记者 (journalist), 前者 (the first, the former), 两者 (both, both of them), 弱者 (the weak)

- 然 (rán): 忽然 (suddenly), 居然 (unexpectedly), 当然 (of course), 果然 (as was expected), 自然 (natural, nature)

- 于 (yú): 在于 (lie in, be at), 等于 (equal, be equivalent to), 忙于 (busy with/doing...), 对于, 难于 (hard to.../difficult to...)

- 家 (jiā): 画家 (artist, painter), 作家 (writer, author), 科学家 (scientist), 文学家, 政治家 (politician)

- 手 (shǒu): 歌手 (singer), 旗手 (flag-bearer), 选手 (participant, contestant), 好手 (a good hand, master), 能手 (expert)

- 员 (yuán): 教员 (university teacher), 演员 (actor), 海员 (sailor), 服务员 (attendant; waiter, waitress), 飞行员 (pilot)

- 性 (xìng): 人性 (human nature, humanity), 创造性 (creativity), 积极性 (enthusiasm, zeal, initiative), 可能性 (possibility, probability), 必然性 (inevitability)

- 观 (guān): 主观 (subjective), 客观 (objective), 乐观 (optimistic, optimism), 悲观 (pessimistic, pessimism) 人生观 (outlook on life), 世界观 (world outlook), 宇宙观 (outlook, world view)

- 论 (lùn): 唯物论 (materialism), 唯心论 (idealism), 相对论 (relativity), 方法论 (methodology)

- 化 (huà): 美化 (beautify), 丑化 (vilify), 绿化 (make green by planting), 现代化 (modernize), 深化 (deepen), 同化 (assimilate), 自动化 (automation), 人格化 (personify), 城市化 (urbanization), 全球化 (globalization)

- 式 (shì): 中式 (Chinese-style), 西式 (Western-style), 美式 (American-style), 便携式 (portable), 袖珍式 (pocket-size)

- 型 (xíng): 新型 (new type, new model), 实用型 (practical type), 中型 (Chinese model (i.e. of government rule)), 传统型 (traditional model, type)

There is also another type of compound words formed by affixation, in which a reduplicated suffix is added to a verb or noun root, which turns the whole word into an adjective:

- 眼巴巴 (yǎnbābā) = eager, anxious, impatient

- 水汪汪 (shuǐwāngwāng) = watery, soaking, very wet; (of women or children’s eyes) bright and intelligent

- 气冲冲 (qìchōngchōng) = furious

- 笑嘻嘻 (xiàoxīxī) = grinning, smiling broadly

- 热乎乎 (rèhūhū) = nice and warm

- 绿油油 (lǜyōuyōu) = fresh green, glossy green

- 白花花 (báihuāhuā) = shiny white; (of beards and silver coins) snow white

- 黑沉沉 (hēichēnchēn) = pitch-black; (of the sky) dark, dim

[renzhe]

Thank you, that's quite detailed and comprehensive.

[PerpetualChange]

Yeah; that's quite a bit. This should prove to be very useful.

[muyongshi]

so, what else do you do in your free time?

Good list.